Research Links

On this page, you’ll find links to international research, scientific studies, and official reports that support the connection between TCDD (Agent Orange) exposure and second-generation health conditions.

World Health Organisation

The World Health Organization (WHO) has conducted extensive research on the health effects of dioxins, particularly 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), the most toxic dioxin compound. In 1997 and reaffirmed in 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of WHO, classified TCDD as a Group 1 carcinogen, indicating it is carcinogenic to humans. This classification was based on sufficient evidence from human epidemiological studies and animal experiments.

Further, WHO’s 2019 publication, Exposure to Dioxins and Dioxin-like Substances: A Major Public Health Concern, highlights the health risks associated with dioxin exposure, including TCDD. The report emphasizes that long-term exposure to dioxins can lead to a range of adverse health effects, such as immune system impairment, developmental issues, endocrine disruption, and reproductive problems. It also notes that due to the high toxic potential of dioxins, efforts are needed to reduce current background exposure.

In 2024, WHO organized an expert consultation to update the Toxic Equivalency Factors (TEFs) for dioxin-like compounds, including TCDD. TEFs are used to assess the toxicity of dioxin-like compounds relative to TCDD, providing a standardized approach for risk assessment.

Access the WHO resources:

United Nations

Evaluation of Dioxin Project Impact to Environment and People (2015)

In 2015, the United Nations and the Vietnamese government published a report evaluating the outcomes of environmental remediation projects at TCDD-contaminated hotspots in Da Nang, Bien Hoa, and Phu Cat. The project aimed to eliminate human and ecological health risks caused by Agent Orange.

Link: https://vietnam.un.org/sites/default/files/2019-08/Evaluation%20of%20Dioxin%20Project%20Impact%20to%20Environment%20and%20People_20150305_FINAL.pdf
Comprehensive Report on Agent Orange/Dioxin Contamination at Three Hotspots (2013)

Published in 2013 by the UNDP and Vietnam’s Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, this report presents research data on TCDD contamination in soil, sediment, and humans at three former military airbases.

Link: https://vietnam.un.org/sites/default/files/2019-08/CTT%20Tieng%20Anh_resize.pdf
UNEP Dioxin and Furan Inventories: National and Regional Emissions of PCDD/PCDF (1999)

This foundational UNEP report compiled global inventories of dioxin emissions, including TCDD, identifying sources and levels of contamination to support international efforts to manage these persistent organic pollutants.

Link: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/407866

International Criminal Court

The Rome Statute is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC), which prosecutes crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide. Submissions can be made directly to the Office of the Prosecutor under Article 15.

Submit a communication: https://www.icc-cpi.int/contact-us

Read the Rome Statute: https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf

Health Conditions Linked to TCDD Exposure

Peripheral Neuropathy – TCDD exposure has been associated with an increased risk of peripheral neuropathy, particularly among veterans and individuals with high exposure levels.

Source: Australian Government – Department of Veterans’ Affairs (DVA) – Exposure to TCDD

https://clik.dva.gov.au/ccps-medical-research-library/statements-principles/n-p/peripheral-neuropathy-f058-337033793545357/rulebase-peripheral-neuropathy/exposure-tcdd
Cancer (Various Types) – TCDD is classified as a Group 1 carcinogen, linked to cancers such as soft-tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and lung cancer.

Source: World Health Organization (WHO) – Dioxins and their effects on human health

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dioxins-and-their-effects-on-human-health
Type 2 Diabetes – Exposure to TCDD has been linked to an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Source: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) – ToxFAQs for Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)

https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts104.pdf
Ischemic Heart Disease – Studies suggest a correlation between TCDD exposure and ischemic heart disease.

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) Fact Sheet

https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-09/documents/2-3-7-8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin.pdf
Chloracne – A severe skin condition resembling acne, chloracne is a hallmark of dioxin exposure.

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0594.html
Reproductive and Developmental Issues – TCDD exposure can lead to reproductive problems and developmental defects in offspring.

Source: WHO – Exposure to Dioxins and Dioxin-like Substances: A Major Public Health Concern

https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329485/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.4-eng.pdf
Immune System Suppression – TCDD can impair the immune system, reducing the body’s ability to fight infections.

Source: ATSDR – Toxicological Profile for Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)

https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=366&tid=63
Endocrine Disruption – Exposure to TCDD may disrupt hormonal balance, affecting various bodily functions.

Source: WHO – Chemical Safety and Health: Dioxins

https://www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/chemical-safety-and-health/health-impacts/chemicals/dioxins
Neurodevelopmental Disorders – TCDD exposure during pregnancy can affect the developing nervous system of the fetus.

Source: WHO – Exposure to Dioxins and Dioxin-like Substances: A Major Public Health Concern

https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329485/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.4-eng.pdf
Liver Damage – TCDD has been shown to cause liver toxicity in animal studies, indicating potential risks to human liver health.

Source: ATSDR – ToxFAQs for Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins (CDDs)

https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tfacts104.pdf
Thyroid Dysfunction – Exposure to TCDD may lead to alterations in thyroid hormone levels, affecting metabolism.

Source: WHO – Exposure to Dioxins and Dioxin-like Substances: A Major Public Health Concern

https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329485/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.4-eng.pdf
Parkinson’s Disease – Studies suggest a connection between TCDD exposure and an increased risk of Parkinson’s disease.

Source: U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) – Parkinson’s Disease and Agent Orange

https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/conditions/parkinsons-disease.asp
Prostate Cancer – TCDD exposure has been linked to an increased risk of prostate cancer, particularly in male veterans.

Source: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) – Prostate Cancer and Agent Orange

https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agentorange/prostatecancer.html
Respiratory Issues (e.g., Chronic Bronchitis, Emphysema) – TCDD exposure has been associated with respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – Dioxins and Health

https://www.epa.gov/impacts/dioxins-and-health